My thanks go to the people who
contributed to the foundations of this paper: The Commission
- Ed Calle, Jennifer Davidson, Jack Heller, Daniel Scheuerer,
David Shrader, and Larry Williams; and others who reacted to
earlier drafts—especially, Mary E. Bickel, Paul Lehman,
Michael Mark, and Thomas Regelski. Although the writing and
the responsibility for the viewpoint are mine, their contributions
were critical to whatever success this document has.
1. In this paper,
"music making" means music performance, composition,
and improvisation. "Musicing,"
as used by Elliott (1994), and "Musicking"
by Small (1998), include also dancing and listening. For a further
discussion of this issue, see Gates (1991).
2.
Paul Lehman's chapter in this publication expands on the
issue of teaching toward the Standards.
3. See Swanwick
(1991, 1994), Swanwick and Franca (1999), and Swanwick and Tillman
( 1986).
4. Regelski uses
the term "praxis"
for this way of seeing musicality. Praxis generally means "mindful
action" or action based on judgment. As Regelski puts it
(Spring 1998, p. 32): "Praxis, in this view, amounts to
theory, judgment, wisdom, and knowledge put into action by and
as a rational phronesis of 'good' or 'right results' for particular
circumstances." Action, of course, suggests a contribution
of skill; otherwise, the results Regelski describes would happen
accidentally. However, musical technique building, in the praxial
view, occurs in the process of doing music " . . . for
particular circumstances . . . " not developed in the abstract,
isolated from music making with the implication that one is
building skills that some day one might find useful. Praxially
built skills are applicable to future music making but are not
abstracted from it in "scale studies" or "technic-builders."
That said, where weak skills block musical expression, the learner
diagnoses this and attacks the problem, perhaps with help from
others; but he or she does so intentionally, with a musical
application in mind. He or she studies. The term phronesis refers
to the application of judgment through the options that occur
naturally and become guiding in a mindful act before, during
and after the action. See also Regelski (Fall 1998).
5. Smith (1997)
challenged the relevance of most available music research to
our understanding of novices. He found that most "music
science" used musical experts, rather than novices, as
the point of reference in the rationales, and he proposes new
directions, including a re-examination of such beliefs as octave
equivalence.
6. For a brief summary
of the current intelligence/music rationale, see Gromko and
Poorman (1998). See also Rauscher (1997)
7. Two recent symposiums
are the Ithaca Conference'96: Music as Intelligence (Brummet,
1997) and The 1999 Charles Fowler Colloquium— Enlightened
Advocacy: Implications of Research for Arts Education Policy
and Practice (16-17 April 1999, at the University of Maryland,
College Park).
8. Clifford K. Madsen,
personal correspondence, 9 April 1999.
9. Abeles, Hoffer,
and Klotman (1994, p. 262). Here, they are summarizing findings
from Madsen, Greer, and Madsen (1975), and Madsen and Prickett
(1987).
10. Wayne Bowman,
Lucy Green (1997), and Eleanor Stubley are among those developing
newer theories of musical embodiment, taking musical experience
and human functionality to new levels of integration.
11. Studies in
support of this use technologies that include neural mapping,
brain chemistry studies, blood flow studies, using PET, MRI,
EEG, CAT, etc. See Hodges (1996), ch. 7, for a solid overview.
Both Hellmuth Petsche and John Holahan and their collaborators
have published various studies using such technology, as have
Donald Hodges and others in the Institute for Music Research
(IMR) at the University of Texas, San Antonio. Michael Wagner
also works in this arena.
12. See Gordon
(1987) and Walters and Taggart (1989) for definitions and accounts
of what Edwin Gordon calls developmental music aptitude.
13. See Swanwick
(1991, 1994), Swanwick and Tillman (1986), and Swanwick and
Franca (1999) for crosscultural research in music composition
and listening development. See Green (1997) and Kemp (1996)
for thorough explorations of musicians' personalities in Western
music's "schooled" traditions. Alas, few psychological
studies of this scope are available in the "unschooled"
tradition, but see Keil and Feld (1994) for what will prove
to be a groundbreaking ethnographic and social psychological
analysis of vernacular musical behavior.
14. See Howard
Gardner's discussion of how this works in Brummett (1997, pp.
1-30).
15. See Searle
(1994) for a good analysis of the brain-mind issue and Dissanayake
(1988, 1992) for applications of genetics to the arts.
16. Thanks go to
Jennifer Davidson for suggesting and contributing most of this
list.
17. See Brummett
(1997, p. 21).
18. See National
Standards for Music Education (Consortium of National Arts
Education Associations, 1994; and Music Educators National Conference,
1996) for more detailed lists. See also chapters in this book
by Paul Lehman and Cornelia
Yarbrough.
19. See Colwell
(1992).
20. Gates (1998).
21.
John Feierabend, Donna
Brink Fox,
Edwin Gordon, Lili Levinowitz, and other leaders in the
practice of working with infants have developed teaching procedures
based on their own research and experience, continuing a practice
that builds on pioneering work by such people as Donald Pond
and Robert Petzold.
Note: The books and articles selected
here are among many of relevance to the topic, and this list
is by no means exhaustive. It represents an attempt to connect
the science of music learning and teaching with the belief systems
of music in the Western tradition. In addition to the books,
there are many excellent journal reports of research exploring
a manageable number of experimental variables in music learning.
The items listed here were selected from music research journals
since 1992 if the primary purpose was (a) to review or critique
current or recent research in music learning, or (b) to provide
an extended treatment of music learning processes or developmental
stages. For journal articles, the year 1992 was selected to
extend rather than replace the most recent critical reviews
of this literature in Colwell (1992) and Hodges (1996).
Abeles, Harold F., Charles R.
Hoffer, and Robert H. Klotman. Foundations of Music Education.
2d ed. New York: Schirmer Books, 1994.
Brummett,
Verna, ed. Ithaca Conference '96 Music as Intelligence: A
Source Book. Ithaca, NY: Ithaca College, 1997.
Colwell, Richard, ed. Handbook
of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. New York: Schirmer
Books, 1992.
Consortium of National Arts Education
Associations. National Standards for Arts Education. Reston,
VA: Music Educators National Conference, 1994.
Demorest, Steven M. "Sightsinging
in the Secondary Choral Ensemble: A Review of the Research."
Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 137
(Summer 1998): 1-15.
Dissanayake, Ellen. What Is
Art For? Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1988.
_______. Homo Aestheticus:
Where Art Comes from and Why. New York: The Free Press,
1992.
Dowling, W. Jay, and Dane L. Harwood.
Music
Cognition. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1986.
Elliott, David. Music Matters.
New York: Schirmer Books, 1994.
Fiske, Harold E. Music
and Mind. Lewiston, NY: Mellen Books, 1990.
_______. Music
Cognition and Aesthetic Attitudes. Lewiston, NY: Mellen
Books, 1993.
Gates, J. Terry. "Music Participation:
Theory, Research and Policy." Bulletin of the Council
for Research in Music Education 109 (Summer 1991): 1-36.
_______. "International Theorizing
in Music Education: The MayDay Group and Its Agenda." Presented
at the International Society for Music Education, Pretoria,
South Africa, 25 July 1998. (For the text, see <http://members.aol.com/jtgates/maydaygroup/_>
on the page titled The MayDay Group Agenda.)
Gordon, Edwin E. The Nature,
Description, Measurement and Evaluation of Music Aptitudes.
Chicago: G.I.A. Publications,
1987.
Green, Lucy. Music,
Gender, Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1997.
Gromko, Joyce Eastlund, and Allison
Smith Poorman. "The Effect of Music Training on Preschoolers'
Spatial-Temporal Task Performance," Journal of Research
in Music Education 46, no. 2 (Summer 1998): 173-81.
Hargreaves, David J., and Adrian
C. North, eds. The
Social Psychology of Music. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1997.
Hennion, Antoine. Comment la
Musique Vient aux Enfants: Une Anthropologie de L'Enseignement
Musical. Paris:Anthropos, 1988.
Hodges, Donald A., ed. Handbook
of Music Psychology. 2d ed. San Antonio, TX: The Universit,v
of Texas at San Antonio,1996.
Keil, Charles, and Steven Feld.
Music
Grooves. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1994.
Kemp, Anthony E. The
Musical Temperament: Psychology and Personality of Musicians.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Kjelland, James M., Jody L. Kerchner,
and Marian T. Dura, eds. "The Effects of Music Performance
Participation on the Music Listening Experience: A Review of
Literature." Bulletin of the Council for Research in
Music Education 136 (Spring 1998): 1-55.
Krumhansl, Carol L. Cognitive
Foundations of Musical Pitch. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1990.
Madsen, Clifford K., R. D. Greer,
and Charles H. Madsen. Research in Music Behavior. New
York: Teachers College, 1975.
Madsen, Clifford K., and Carol
A. Prickett, eds. Applications of Research in Music Behavior.
Tuscaloosa, AL: University of
Alabama Press, 1987.
Music Educators National Conference.
Performance Standards for Music: Strategies and Benchmarks
for Assessing Progress toward the National Standards, Grades
PreK—12. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference,
1996.
Rauscher, Frances H. "A Cognitive
Basis for the Facilitation of Spatial-Temporal Cognition through
Music Instruction." In Ithaca Conference '96 -Music
as Intelligence: A Sourcebook, edited by Verna Brummett,
31-44. Ithaca, NY: Ithaca College, 1997.
Regelski, Thomas A. "The
Aristotelian Bases of Praxis for Music and Music Education as
Praxis." Philosophy of Music Education Review 6
(Spring 1998): 22-59
_______. "Schooling for Musical
Praxis." Canadian Music Educator 40, no. 1 (Fall
1998).
Reimer, Bennett. "Facing
the Risks of the 'Mozart Effect'." Music Educators Journal
86, no. 1 (July 1999): 37-43.
Searle, John R. The
Rediscovery of the Mind. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 1994.
Small, Christopher. Musicking:
The Meanings of Performing and Listening. Hanover, NH: University
Presses of New England, 1998.
Smith, J. David. "The Place
of Musical Novices in Music Science." Music Perception
14 (Spring 1997):227-62.
Swanwick, Keith. "Further
Research on the Musical Developmental Sequence." Psychology
of Music 19(1991):22-32.
_______. Musical
Knowledge: Intuition, Analysis and Music Education. London:
Routledge, 1994.
Swanwick, Keith, and Cecilia C.
Franca. "Composing, Performing and Audience Listening as
Indicators of Musical Understanding. " British Journal
of Music Education 16 (1999): 5-19.
Swanwick, Keith, and June Tillman.
"The Sequence of Musical Development: A Study of Children's
Composition." British Journal of Music Education 3
(1986): 305-339.
Walters, Darryl L., and Cynthia
Crump Taggart, eds. Readings
in Music Learning Theory. Chicago: G.I.A. Publications,
1989.
Wilson, Edward O. On
Human Nature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
1972.
Woodford, Paul G., ed. Critical
Thinking in Music: Theory and Practice. London, Ontario,
Canada: The University of Western Ontario, 1998.
